GENESIS OF THE INDIAN EDUCATION TODAY: PRE-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD - Basic Education
By the end of Vedic period and during medieval period, the missionaries and various religious groups had brought some basic education to the Indian masses, through churches in English, in native Temple Schools through Sanskrit and in Madarasas using Persian and Arabic, catering to educational needs of the few children with the support of the contemperory rulers and charity of the rich till East India Company was established and British Parliament was involved. However, the origin of the present education system in this country can be found at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
It was through the Charter Act that a state system of education was officially introduced in Indian history. Charter of the East India Company had to be renewed by British Parliament after every twenty years. When the Charter came in for renewal in 1813, British parliament directed the East India Company to set apart a sum of Rs one lakh every year “for the revival and promotion of literature, and the encouragement of the learned natives of India, and for the introduction and promotion of knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories.” Thus it was the first time that officially financial arrangement was made by the Queen, and East India Company was made responsible for education of the natives.
Macaulay’s Minutes
Lord Macaulay (Thomas Babington Macaulay) arrived in India (Madras) on 10th June 1834 as a member of the Supreme Council of India. William Bentinck was the then Governor General. He returned to England early 1838, and resumed his writing career there. Macaulay was in India, thus, only for nearly four years, but he was destined to impact the lives of millions of Indians forever.
Supremacy of English: Participating in the debate, Lord Macaulay, the Chairman of the General Committee of Public Instruction, prepared and circulated a memorandum on the issue in January 1835. He took a decisive stand against the native culture and learning, native knowledge and languages like Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian and asserted on the education of Western Science through English language. His views have gone as (in)famous Macaulay’s Minute (2) in the history of Indian education and we can see how influential he was; it took 100 years for us even to think of indigineious education system that is Basic Education proposed by Mahatma Gandhi in 1937 in Wardha conference. Even today, after almost two hundred years after Macaulay, the present system is still infected by the Macaulay’s ghosts in different forms, like influence of English medium schools on the choice of parents for education of their children in India.
Macaulay rejected both the native languages- Arabic and Sanskrit, as against English, because he considered that English was better than both of them. He arrogated that, “a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia. The intrinsic superiority of the Western literature is indeed fully admitted….. .” (3). He further observed that “In India, English is the language spoken by the ruling class. It is spoken by the higher class of natives at the seats of Government.” (4). for him, “what we spend on the Arabic and Sanskrit Colleges is not merely a dead loss to the cause of truth. It is bounty-money paid to rise up champions of error” (5).
He further maintained, “It is impossible for us, with our limited means, to attempt to educate the body of the people. We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern, a class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the population”(7).
Macaulay’s Minute and policy of the ‘Downward Filtration Theory’was accepted by Lord Bentinck, the Governor General, on behalf of the British rule and he passed the orders to accept English language as a medium of instruction for the Indian education system. Since then, Macaulay’s Minute formed the basis of the education in India for couple of centuries. Indian education remained under the influence of those views of Macaulay and we continued English as medium of instruction, even after independence.
Check Your Progress:-- Describe briefly, the “downward filtration theory”
- Why did Macaulay propose to spend the Govt. funds for the improvement of English, rather than Oriental literature?
Wood’s Dispatch
Comprehensive education system and organizational structure : You have seen as to how Macaulay’s Minute influenced educational policy of Lord William Bentinck, which was in force for next 40 years. In 1853, when renewal of the Company charter again came for the consideration, the British Parliament examined the progress of education in India. The observations and suggested reforms were issued as a Charter of Education, known as Wood’s Dispatch of 1854 (8). Wood’s Dispatch is considered to be the “Magna Carta of Education” in India.
The Dispatch is a comprehensive important educational document and holds a unique place in the history of Indian education. It placed the responsibility of education of the Indian people fully on the company and made it quite clear that it must never be neglected. The Dispatch gave new direction to education in India and which has its impact on today’s education in the country.
The aim of education was stated as diffusion of European Arts, Science, Philosophy and Literature through English. Promotion of Indian languages was also to be encouraged. “Creation of a class of public servants”, was the important objective. For this purpose, expansion of mass education was given priority.
The Wood’s Dispatch, for the first time, recommended the creation of a Department of Public Instruction in each of the five provinces of Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Punjab and the North Western province. For higher education, a scheme to establish universities was formulated along with total organizational set up. They were to conduct examinations and offer degrees in various subjects and languages. This led to the establishment of the first three universities in 1857, at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
Must Read:The Dispatch made important recommendations on most of the aspects of education like establishing network of graded schools all over the country such as elementary schools, high schools, intermediate, colleges and university, etc., grant in aid system for financial support to schools, provision for women education, training and professional development of teachers, establishment of medical, engineering law and other institutes of professional education to develop vocational efficiency of people.
The importance of wood’s dispatch was in a number of valuable and fundamental recommendations for future educational development in India. It gave new direction to issues like gradation of education, medium of instruction and proposed new schemes for future educational development in India with far reaching consequences.
The main provisions of the document were of great historical importance. It provided a boost to secondary education and to some extent to primary education also. It was however observed that some of the most important recommendations of the Dispatch were not carried out for a long time and some were given effect in a distorted form. During the first thirty years after the Dispatch, government institutions gradually increased, but except the Christian Missionaries, other private efforts were not encouraged.
Plans to spread mass education were not realized nor were vernacular high schools established. It did not sincerely promote universal literacy. The Dispatch could not visualize the progress of Indian aspirations even after a century. As you know soon after 1857 revolt, the East India Company was dissolved and the government came directly under the British Crown. As a consequence, efforts were made to consolidate the empire and education was somewhat neglected.
Check Your Progress
- Mention two main recommendations of Wood’s Dispatch.
- Which aspect of the present system of education was influenced most by Wood’s Dispatch?
Hunter Commission
Vocationalization of Education: Hunter Commission was appointed in 1882 to examine the implementation of the Dispatch of 1854, which tried to streamline school education into two streams of high school: one leading to the university education and the other to the commercial, vocational and technical education (9). This was the first attempt to diversify school curriculum and introduce vocational education. However, despite the specific recommendations and emphasis of the Hunter Commission on commercial, vocational or non-literary education, neither the public nor the Govt. appreciated the value of this practical suggestion and the recommendations were totally ignored. Not much was done in this regard in last hundred fifty years, not even in free India.
Universities Commission
Schools under the control of University: A new Commission was appointed in 1902 to examine the condition and prospects of the universities established in British Raj. The Commission recommended the reorganization of university administration; strict and systematic supervision of the colleges by the university; and stricter conditions of affiliation and major changes in curricula and examinations. More relevant and important for school education is, as a result of the recommendations of this Commission, secondary schools were brought under the control of the Universities. Under the Indian Universities Act of 1904, schools had to be recognized by the Universities and rules and regulations were framed for this purpose (10).
Sadler Commission
Intermediate colleges: The next important development was realization of the need of improvement of secondary education for the improvement of University education, as observed by the Sadler Commission in 1917. This concern also stemmed from of the need for bifurcation of college courses. Sadler Commission suggested bifurcation of higher education at the intermediate examination rather than at the matriculation examination, and suggested creation of Intermediate colleges which would provide instruction in Arts, Science, Medicine, Engineering, Teaching, etc; to be run as independent institution or to be attached to selected high schools. It also recommended that a Board of Secondary and Intermediate Education, be established and entrusted with the administration and control of Secondary Education. Perhaps the seed of the concept of +2 stage or Junior Colleges today, are laid by the Sadler Commission.
The Sadler Commission Report was a comprehensive one and many of the universities in India implemented its suggestions. It was also for the first time that a Commission had recommended the attachment of intermediate classes to the high schools and the setting up of a Board of Education to control high school and intermediate education. (12)
The Hartog Committee
In 1929, the Hartog Committee, appointed to review the position of education in the country, maintained that the Matriculation of the University still dominated the whole of the secondary course. To remove this defect, the Committee recommended that a large number of students intending to follow certain vocation should stop at the middle school stage and there should be “more diversified curricula in the schools”. The Committee also recommended diversion of more boys to industrial and commercial careers at the end of the middle stage, where they should be prepared for specialized education in technical and industrial schools. The Committee also reviewed the problems relating to the training of teachers and the service conditions of the secondary teachers”.
The Sapru Committee
Diversified Vocational Courses: The Sapru Committee appointed in 1934 by the U.P. Government to enquire into the causes of unemployment in U.P. Came to the conclusion that the system of education prepared pupils only for examinations and degrees and not for any vocation in life. This Committee also felt the need of diversified courses at secondary stage. It suggested that, (i) diversified courses at the secondary stage should be introduced, one of these leading to the University degree, (ii) the intermediate stage be abolished and the secondary stage be extended by one year, (iii) the vocational training and education should begin after the lower secondary stage, and (iv) the degree course at the University should extend over a period of three years, (13)
The Abbot-Wood Report
Polytechnic: In pursuance of the Resolution of 1935 of the Central Advisory Board of Education, two expert advisers, Messrs. Abbot and Wood were invited in 1936 to advise the Government particularly on problems of vocational education. The Abbot-Wood Report, submitted in 1937, suggested a complete hierarchy of vocational institutions parallel with the hierarchy of institutions imparting general education. As a result of their recommendations, a new type of technical institution called the Polytechnic came into existence. The provinces also started technical, commercial or agricultural high -schools conducting non- literary courses (14).
Zakir Hussain Committee’s Report
Wardha Scheme 1937 –Basic Education: In 1937, when the provincial governments were formed in seven provinces with the native representation, they concentrated their attention on educational reforms. In October 1937, an all-India National Educational Conference was held at Wardha and the conference resolved to accept the proposal made by Mahatma Gandhi that free and compulsory education be provided for seven years through mother tongue on a nation-wide scale and the process of education throughout this period should centre around some form of manual and productive work. All other abilities to be developed or training to be given should, as far as possible, be integrally related to the central handicraft chosen with due regard to the environment of the child. The conference expected that this system of education will be self sufficient and gradually, will be able to cover the remuneration of teachers.
Accordingly, a committee under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain was appointed. The Committee prepared and submitted the first comprehensive national education scheme in its report on December 2, 1937, which was popularly known as the Wardha Scheme or Basic Education (15). The main features of the scheme are as follows:
(i) The entire education is to be imparted through some industry or vocation with a basic craft as the center of instruction. The idea is not to teach some handicraft along with liberal education, but education integrated with a handicraft is to be imparted through samavaaya (Samavay) integration method. It’s a work-centric education.
(ii) Education is to be self-supporting to the extent of covering teachers’ salaries and aims at making pupils self-supporting after the completion of their course;
(iii) Every individual should learn to earn his living through manual work in life. Hence, education through manual labour is insisted. It is also considered non-violent, since an individual does not snatch away the living of others.
(iv) Learning is closely coordinated with home, community and the child’s life activities, as well as, village crafts and occupations.
This philosophy had a strong impact on formulation of the educational policies, particularly at the elementary stage and for free primary education to find place in the constitution of free India.
The Sargent Report
Universalization of Elementary Education: Central Advisory Board of Education prepared a comprehensive report on educational development after the world war, known as the Sargent Report in 1944 (16). It visualized a system of education with pre-primary education for children between 3 to 6 years of age; universal, compulsory and free primary basic education for all children between the ages 6-11 (junior basic) and 11-14 (senior basic) as suggested in Wardha Scheme; the Senior Basic or the Middle School to be the final stage in the school career of majority of the students. The report also recommended that at the Middle School stage, provision should be made for a variety of courses. These courses should be designed to prepare the pupils for entry into industrial and commercial occupations, as well as, into the universities. It was recommended that the High School course should cover 6 years. The normal age of admission should be 11 years. The high schools should be of two main types (a) academic, and (b) technical. Degree course should be for three years for selected students. The objective of both should be to provide a good all-round education combined with some preparation in the later stages for the careers which pupils will pursue on leaving schools. The mother tongue is to be used as the medium of instruction in all high schools.
Liquidation of adult illiteracy in about 20 years, full provision for the proper training of teachers, provision for the physically and mentally handicapped children, the organization of compulsory physical education, provision for social and recreational activities and creation of department of Education in the centre and in the states were also the recommendations of Sargent Report.
The Sargent Report was the first comprehensive scheme covering all stages and aspects of education - pre-primary, primary, high school and university education, as well as, technical, vocational and professional education. It provided for equal opportunities to all the students. Due importance was given to the teaching profession. Improvement of the salary scales and the service conditions of the teachers were also suggested. The report gave importance to productive education. It appreciated the employment problem in the country and thought that education could provide solution to it. These recommendations provided the sound footing for the education in free India.
LET US SUM UP
Elementary Education in India: a Socio-Cultural perspective, which seeks to delineate the Indian education system starting from ancient India to pre-independence period. The unit gives a brief overview of the educational practices followed in India during the Vedic period. Much importance was given to education in those days and knowledge was considered as a power on a third eye. The ultimate goal of education was,no doubt, liberation of the self from the bondages of Vasanas and Trishnas- the irrational desires and appetites. Apart from increasing efficiency of the individual in dealing with the mundane affairs, knowledge was obtained for Scholarship, for understanding spirituality, character building personality development, creation, preservation and propagation of culture were the other goals and aims of education in ancient India.
Education was imparted in Gurukulas, which were mostly located slightly awayfrom the habitations. The Guru used to treat all students equal irrespective of their status in the society. The Guru was held in high esteem in the society. The Guru was considered as the custodian of the education of each student. Teaching was mostly oral a dialogue between the teacher and taught . Lectures, discussions, debate recitation were part of the life of students. The Gurukul system continued need during medieval period. In addition,Maqtabs and Madarsas were established for Muslim students in the Mosques. Islamic education was imparted by Mullahs and Maulawis.
During the Medieval period the missionaries and various religious groups brought basic education through churches in English in native temple schools though Sanskrit, and in Madarsas using Persianlanguage until East India Company was established and British Parliament was involved. However the origin of present system of education in India can be traced to the Macaulays Minutes of 1935 Macaulay rejected the native languages as against English. Through Macaulay remained in India only for a period of about 4 years but he was destined to impact the lives of millions of Indians forever.
Here we further discusses the Woods Dispatch(1853) which gave Indian education a system and a organised structure. The Woods Dispatch is a comprehensive important educational document which holds a unique place in the history of Indian education.
Further, the recommendation of Hunter Commission (1982) are indicated highling its most important contribution to Indian education the vocationalisation of education. Then there is a brief mention of universities commission of 1902. The secondary schools were brought under the control of university. In this unit the recommendation of the Hartog Committee the Sapru Committee and the Abbot-Wood report, the ZakirHussain Committee report (Wardha Scheme of 1937) and the Sargent report (Dealing with Universalization of Elementary Education) have been discussed. It is interesting to mention that the Sargent report was the comprehensive scheme conveying all stages and aspects of education. This recommendation provided a sound footing for education in free India.
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